[Discussion] Literature in Central Asia

[Paksoy, Hb]

Literature in Central Asia=20
H.B. Paksoy, D. Phil.

(Edited version published in ENYCLOPEDIA of MODERN ASIA, David Levinson, =
Karen Christensen, Editors.  (Charles Scribners, 2002)  Pp. 478-482

It is difficult to imagine Central Asia without literature. Of the epic =
literature and poetry produced by numerous Central Asian ethnic groups, =
scholars are most familiar with Turkish and Persian literature and, to a =
certain extent, writings in Arabic and Urdu. Some of the oldest forms =
are odes to Tengri, the deity worshiped by the Mongols in their =
monotheistic belief systemNext came the chorchok (also known as sav, =
jir, dastan), oral histories, as well as didactic stories drawn from =
that genre.
Poetry writing was one of the earliest pastimes in Central Asia. Folk =
poets still perform poetry at teahouses, as they accompany themselves =
with a stringed musical instrument generally known as kobuz. Other =
performers often join in, contesting for top honors and monetary and =
other awards. This musicopoetic competition has always been an eagerly =
awaited entertainment feature at special occasions such as weddings and =
funerary feasts. Or a traveling minstrel may recite and act out an =
entire epic, such as the Manas (c. 995, the national epic of the Kyrgyz =
people, centering on a heroic figure called Manas), Iskandarnameh (The =
Book of Alexander the Great, by the Persian poet Nezami, c. =
ll41-1203),or Shahnameh (The Book of Kings, compiled by the Persian poet =
Firdawsi, c. 935-c. 1020).=20
Poetry Written by Rulers
To win the respect and allegiance of his subjects, a new ruler usually =
issued a collection of his poems in a specially prepared volume. This =
collection was duplicated by scribes and read aloud at  teahouses. The =
ruler's prestige was increased when people enjoyed such poetry on =
aesthetic grounds, an especially desirable achievement if the new ruler =
was establishing a dynasty to replace a previous one. Hikmet, by Shibani =
Khan of the Uzbeks, is an example of such poetry written in the early =
sixteenth century.=20
Mirrors for Princes
Manuals prepared to instruct future rulers and to improve the abilities =
of reigning kings, termed "Mirrors for Princes," include such works as =
the Kutadgu Bilig (published in English as Wisdom of Royal Glory), the =
Kabusnameh, and Siyasatnameh (The Book of Government). The Kutadgu Bilig =
was written by Yusuf of Balasagun and dedicated to Tavgach Bugra Khan of =
the Karakhanid dynasty (999-1212), in 1170 The Kabusnameh was produced =
shortly afterward as a series of admonitions to the writer's son and =
heir detailing how to extract the most from the earthly pleasures in his =
realm. The Siyasatnameh  was presented by Nizam al-Mulk (1018/19-1092), =
the prime minister of Alp Arslan (c. 1030-1072), the Seljuk ruler, as =
his testament and as a defense of his own political actions.=20
Conversion Literature
Before the arrival of Islam in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, =
several dominant belief systems coexisted in Central Asia, including =
Tengri, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism. Special literature was created or =
translated for the purpose of disseminating each newcomer religion, when =
it arrived. These missionary works were rendered into the Central Asian =
languages dominant at the time that the religion reached the region  =
and, in some cases, were translated out of them for dissemination in =
other regions. For example, Buddhism made its way from India into China =
by way of the Uighurs, who translated sacred Buddhist texts from =
Sanskrit into Uighur and then into Chinese. Christianity established a =
small foothold in western Central Asia with the Codex Cumanicus (c. =
1300), a Latin guide to the language of the Cumans, a people of Central =
Asia.
In eastern  Central Asia, the Ghaznavids (977-1187) and Karakhanids held =
sway as the Islamization of the region got underway. In the central area =
of Central Asia, the Seljuk or Oghuz Turks (1038-1157) and the Timurids =
(fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) were the dominant powers. The Mongol =
Golden Horde khanates (fourteenth-sixteenth centuries) held the =
northwestern region. Farther west were the Ottoman Turks (1453-1922), =
who were sometimes involved in Central Asian affairs. These polities and =
dynasties all directly or indirectly participated in the proliferation =
of Central Asian literary traditions.=20
Under these rulers, Islam popularized two new literary genres in Central =
Asian polities. The first dealt with the myths associated with the =
conversion of Central Asian populations to Islam, and the second was =
concerned with the struggle of Islam against the extant belief systems =
in Central Asia, in the form of tales of battles during the conversion =
process. The Persian poet Mawlana Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi (1207-1273) was =
one such figure making use of the genre. Rumi relied on his voluminous =
poetry to spread the word of his Sufi (Islamic mystic) sect.
 Philosophy, Astronomy and Other Sciences, and Mathematics
The rulers of polities provided the patronage and favorable environment =
for the production of masterpieces, by which the rulers would be =
remembered for eternity. Therefore, regardless of the nature and =
objectives of the writing, Central Asians adhered to certain rules in =
their works. This is evident even in books not entirely devoted to =
belles lettres. Among them are the writings of the Turkish philosopher =
Abu Nasr al-Farabi (c. 878-c. 950) and the Arab historian Muhammad ibn =
Jarir at-Tabari (c. 839-923). Their works were translated into Western =
languages and published from the sixteenth century on. Ulugh Beg =
(1394-1449), the grandson of the Turkic conqueror Timur (1336-1405) =
ruled Samarqand and the environs and was the author of astronomical and =
mathematical works that influenced European studies, when, beginning in =
the seventeenth century, they were translated into Latin and printed in =
Oxford, England.
Reportedly of Uighur descent, Mir Ali Shir Nava'i (1441-1501) was one of =
the premier literati and statesman of his time. He wrote voluminously =
and with apparent ease in Chagatay, a Turkic dialect, and in Persian and =
long served as prime minister of the Timurid ruler Huseyin Baykara =
(reigned 1469-1506) of Herat and Khorasan. Much of his tasteful poetry =
remains untranslated, but among his prose works, Muhakemat al-lughateyn =
(Consideration of Two Languages) has been translated into English. Babur =
(1483-1530), another direct descendant of Timur, established the Mughal =
empire in India. He was also an accomplished author in Chagatay; his =
memoirs are still highly praised and regarded. Jami (1414-492), a =
Persian poet and mystic, was Nava'i's friend and fellow man of letters =
of the period in Herat. =20
 The Czarist Period
l480As Russian armies proceeded to invade Central Asia, the literature =
began to reflect the struggle between the invaders and the defenders. =
The Russian invasion attempts were not always successful. In 1506, =
Shibani Khan of the Uzbeks sent a quatrain to Muhammed Amin, the khan of =
Kazan, congratulating the latter for turning back the Russian attack on =
Kazan. Shortly afterward, dastans  (chorchok, sav, jir) were pressed =
into service as well. The 1552 variant of the Chora Batir dastan =
described the fighting over Kazan. In 1905, Ismail Gaskprinski (or =
Gaspirali, 1851-1914), an influential Tatar journalist, wrote a poem to =
admonish his detractors: "If my arrow would hit the target / If my horse =
should win the race / Chorabatir is valiant / If my arrow could not =
reach its target / And my horse cannot win the race / Tell me, what =
could=20
Chorabatir do?" (Paksoy 1986:TK)

The Basmachi and the Semi-Independence Period
During the nineteenth century, when the greatest portion of Central Asia =
fell under Russian armies, the response of the Central Asian leadership =
was to have medieval Central Asian literature collected and published. =
In 1916, the Basmachi (Turkistan National Liberation Movement) began =
fighting, at first spontaneously, later in a planned and coordinated =
manner, to construct a Turkistan polity. For a time, the movement was =
successful. According to Togan, a prime mover of the initiative, the =
dastan  Koroglu not only kept morale high, but also served as a =
role-model, because the historical Koroglu had fought for freedom =
against all odds.=20
When Central Asian peoples could not openly circumvent Russian =
censorship, they resorted to writing highly coded satire. The journal =
Molla Nasreddin is a prime example. Named after a "people's philosopher" =
who lived prior to the thirteenth century, it was founded by Jelil =
Memmedkuluzade (1866-1937) and published in Tbilisi, Tabriz, and Baku =
from 1906 to 1920. Exercising an enormous influence on its readership, =
it spawned dozens of emulators across continents. When Mikhail Gorbachev =
instituted perestroika, the Soviet policy of economic and governmental =
reform, in the mid-1980s, the journal was reprinted in Baku, as a =
reminder of what had gone before. Those who reprinted Molla Nasreddin =
had the same objective as its founder, Memmedkuluzade: autonomy and =
freedom. =20
 The Soviet Period=20
fenp1033 When the 1917 Bolshevik revolution began, Central Asian people =
were endeavoring to commit their vast and ancient literature to print. =
After 1924, when Central Asia was divided among various Soviet =
Socialistic Republics, the Oriental Institutes, now Sovietized worked to =
regain control of the process.  One method they used was to collect and =
record on paper the oral literature as if the materials were intended =
for publication, but then to bury the collected manuscripts in a myriad =
of inaccessible archives. Some manuscripts were supposedly lost, their =
reciters who had carried on the oral tradition murdered. When other =
methods failed, the Soviet bureaucracies charged with the "management" =
of Central Asian literature began mounting court trials of books during =
1950-1952. At this time, traditional literatures of the countries of the =
USSR were banned After the accession of Nikita Khruschev (1894-1971) to =
Communist Party leadership, the publication process resumed<M>but with =
new methods. Rather than allowing the originals to be disseminated, the =
Oriental Institutes insisted on issuing approved versions. Also, =
purported dastans on such themes as Ode to the Tractor and Ode to the =
Collective Farm were issued to replace the traditional ones.
One solution used at this time to circumvent censorship was fiction =
literature.  During the 1980s, Olmez Kayalar (Immortal Cliffs), by =
Mamadali Mahmudov; Kuyas ham Alav (Sun Is Also Fire), by Alishir =
Ibadinov; Singan Kilich (Broken Sword), by Tolongon Kasimbekov; Baku =
1501, by Azize Caferzade; and Altin Orda (Golden Horde), by Ilyas =
Esenberlin exemplify this genre. Despite being fiction, all these novels =
contain, to various degrees, footnotes with historically accurate =
information and provide details of how Central Asia was invaded by =
Russian armies. The Soviet apparatus, spearheaded by the Oriental =
Institutes, tried to pressure these and other authors to rewrite =
portions of their novels to cast the Soviet Russians in a better light. =
Failing that, the Soviet bureaucrats endeavored to have the authors =
recant their written assertions. Despite the efforts of the Soviet =
bureaucracies, defiant works kept appearing. =20
A number of authors took advantage of the Soviet state's atheism policy =
to disseminate views not otherwise printable. Aliser Ibadinov, in his =
Kuyas ham Alav, insisted on the necessity of remaining true to ancestral =
beliefs, which predated not only Soviet ideology but also Islam. This =
Ibadinov accomplished by portraying how Central Asians resisted the =
spread of Islam.=20
 The Post-Soviet Period
Some Central Asian authors were sent to Soviet jails simply for writing. =
In some cases, world attention focusing on the plight of these writers =
managed to get them freed. One such case involves Mamadali Mahmudov.  =
One of the reasons that the government was willing to free him was, =
perhaps, that Mahmudov was simply quoting passages from older works, =
such as the Dastan Dede Korkut (committed to paper in the sixteenth =
century although dating from a much earlier period).  After the Uzbek =
Republic declared independence in the post-1991 era, Mahmudov was =
rewarded for his earlier work by being given the newly instituted =
Cholpan Prize. Named after a Central Asian author who perished in =
Stalin's Soviet jails, the Cholpan Prize was meant to honor Mahmudov's =
skill in transmitting historical documentation and narration under the =
guise of fiction. In 1999, Mahmudov was abducted and jailed once again. =
To what extent his new incarceration is due to his past sins of the =
Soviet period is yet to be understood. His case has been taken up by =
various groups and governments, including Amnesty International, =
Helsinki Watch, Human Rights Watch, and Digital Freedom Network. =20
Perhaps the ancient literature of Central Asia is continuing to serve =
the original intent of its creators. The following poem was printed in =
Muhbir (Tashkent, November 1982), the official organ of the Uzbek =
Communist Party Authors' Union. The message is still valid:=20
     Give me a chance, my rebellious dreams
     My father has erected his statue in my memory
     May years and winds be rendered powerless
     May his legacy not be erased from my conscience

     Give me a chance, my rebellious dreams
     Grant my father a holy Dastan
     May years and winds be rendered powerless
     May his remembrance never be allowed to fade

Further Reading:
Please see the printed version.