[Discussion] The Decline of Christendom

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	*Hugh McLeod and Werner Ustorf, eds.* /The Decline of Christendom in 
Western Europe, 1750-2000//. /New York and Cambridge: Cambridge 
University Press, 2003. ix + 234 pp. Tables, notes bibliography, index. 
$60.00 (cloth), ISBN 0-521-81493-6.

Reviewed by *Araceli Duque*, Department of European Studies, University 
Institute Ortega y Gasset, Madrid.
Published by H-Catholic <http://www.h-net.msu.edu/%7Ecatholic> (May, 2004)


*Current Approaches to the Study of the Role of Religion in Western Europe*

"We are still dealing with Christendom: with Christendom in ruins, but 
with Christendom." Hilaire Belloc's words in the early 1930s would seem 
inapplicable today, yet the contributors to this collection of essays 
would not entirely disagree. While Werner Ustorf or Thomas Kselman 
assume the dissolution of Christendom, Martin Greschat or Peter van 
Rooden point to its pervasiveness in the later part of the twentieth 
century--the former through a detailed examination of the debates 
between German Protestants after World War II, the latter arguing for 
the existence of "various kinds of Christendom" which have succeeded 
each other in the case of the Netherlands (p. 113). The answer is not an 
easy one. This collection of essays represents a significant input to 
this far-reaching and still somewhat obscure process.

The contribution of this volume must be placed within the context of the 
promising new historiographical direction that has opened up in modern 
European history, first in the 1950s-1970s with the "new cultural 
history," and continued in the present time by historians, theologians, 
and sociologists who point to the continuous importance of religion in 
the lives of Western European peoples. These show concern, not so much 
with the expressions of social or economic structures or established 
churches, but with alternative ways in which religion may express 
itself. The key is believed to be in the study of popular religious 
behavior and, one may add, not with the essence of Christianity itself, 
but with the way it is experienced. Thus, the central focus is the 
religion of the people, rather than that of political and religious 
elites. This volume examines the much-neglected change from Christendom, 
where Christianity had a prominent role, towards a society in which the 
main churches have had to adapt to a situation where they no longer hold 
a privileged role. Progression or regression? Rather than dismissing the 
replacement of Christendom for Christianity as a negative or positive 
turn in Western European history, the authors of these essays, with 
chapters on most European countries, point out the complexities and 
vicissitudes that should be taken into account before making such a 
judgment of value, thereby contributing to the wealth of new 
perspectives on the complexity and striking tenacity of religious belief 
and practice. It seeks to examine this process of increasing pluralism, 
which has accelerated dramatically since the 1960s, and its implication 
for the future.

There are thirteen chapters, most focusing on a particular European 
country, thereby emphasizing the unitary element of the experience of 
decline. Divided into four sections, it seeks to examine the situation 
of Western Europe at the end of the twentieth century, the reasons why 
and how Christendom has declined through an emphasis on narrative, and 
the situation of religion through key themes such as technology, death, 
and language. The final part of the book looks at the future and asks 
how Christianity should respond to the end of Christendom.

With few exceptions, every country of Western Europe experienced changes 
of the same kind and around the same time: the 1960s. But most 
importantly, no linear path toward dechristianization and secularization 
can be traced from the French Revolution into the twentieth century, for 
nineteenth- and twentieth-century Europe has experienced unpredictable 
religious revivals that scholars are still trying to explain.

If there is a common view among the authors, it is that the "master 
narrative" of secularization is inadequate. Callum Brown and Jeffrey Cox 
note that concepts such as "secularization" and "decline" are 
problematic, because they fail to take account of alternative ways in 
which religiosity is expressed. The problem is that "the secularization 
story is too complex and many-sided to be 'verified' or 'falsified'; it 
can only be compared in its persuasiveness to another story, or other 
stories. As long as secularization is presented as the only story, one 
cannot say it is the best story" (p. 209).

One recurrent theme, as the fine introduction by Hugh McLeod points out, 
is that what marks the radical break with the past, especially in the 
period after 1960, is not so much "that the precepts of Christian 
morality were being ignored in practice, but that alternative principles 
were being openly advocated" (p. 13). Thus, Eva H. Hamberg explores the 
situation of Sweden to argue that what causes religious indifference is 
not a pluralistic society, but a monopoly on religion. As she states, 
"what appears to be a low level of demand for religion may be a low 
level of demand for the available forms of religion" (pp. 58-59). In 
other words, the important factor is quantity rather than quality. 
Moreover, the case of Sweden, she argues, shows that the rise of 
material welfare does not necessarily involve decline of religion.

Yves Lambert, providing one of the best essays in this collection, 
argues that secularization is only one among several aspects of the 
contemporary situation. Rather than dismissing the process as wholly 
"secular," he maintains that Christianity has adapted well to modernity, 
yet at a high price: "the abandonment of what rendered religion 
absolutely indispensable: the reaching of eternal salvation" (p. 77). 
Can we still speak of Christianity in Western Europe when the basic 
element ceases to be important? He does not answer the question, but 
contends that, in order to understand the present situation, we need to 
take account of the main features of modernity and the transformation 
that those changes have brought about.

The complexity is also explored by Lucian Holscher through a study of 
the semantic structures of religious change in Germany, to emphasize 
another recurring theme in these essays, namely, there is no one way to 
view religious change. Furthermore, the study of those changes helps us 
understand historical change. David Hempton analyzes the complex 
relationship between established churches and evangelical dissenters in 
England since 1700.

Thomas Kselman uses his study of death in modern France to argue that 
one must be cautious in making judgments about the process of 
dechristianization and must have, in turn, "a generous standard when 
establishing Christian identity." Thus, in the case of France, he 
argues, we must "consider the possibility that the continued insistence 
on Catholic identity and Christian symbols represents an authentic form 
of Christianity," something which merits further reflection (p. 158). 
Sheridan Gilley studies the way in which religion contributed to the 
formation of cultural identities in the case of Ireland, an important 
theme that merits further reflection in the new Europe. Moreover, the 
relationship between modernity and religion is examined by Michel Lagree 
through the impact of technology on Catholicism, concluding that 
"technology is not inevitably the main agent of the world's 
disenchantment" (p. 179).

If one is interested in knowing the current approaches to the study of 
the decline of Christendom, this book is a must. If one, however, is 
looking for actual reasons for its decline, he will be disappointed, for 
he will not find them here. Instead, the complexity and the diversity of 
the process of religious decline are offered, while recognizing that 
many of the conditions discussed are specific only to Western Europe.

Further lines of inquiry would do well to integrate themes that are 
absent in the present volume, and address questionable assumptions that 
are present here as well. Two absent themes, for instance, are 
intellectual history and that of gender. As to questionable assumptions, 
further research would be enriched by questioning the main definition of 
Christendom as a society in which Christianity was "the dominant 
religion and this dominance has been backed up by social or legal 
compulsions" (p. 218). Thus, the argument goes, the most important 
difference between religion under Christendom and under modern secular 
societies is that in the former, it was imposed from above or adhered to 
because of peer-pressure, dominated by coercion, control, and 
domination, whereas in modern societies religion is free and voluntary. 
If the main definition of Christendom is a civilization that was imposed 
from above, how can one explain its endurance and pervasiveness in 
history? This question is left unanswered.

The present volume attempts to examine the transformation of religion in 
modern European history without, as Werner Ustorf notes, "imprisoning it 
in one's views and tradition, likes and dislikes" (p. 220). This indeed 
is a laudable enterprise, yet it is still doubtful how or whether it can 
be achieved. The tendency of many of the contributors of these essays is 
to lower the standards of Christianity so that it can be accepted by 
all. Werner Ustorf's solution is for Christianity to free itself from 
its cultural, institutional or doctrinal restraints. With this 
statement, he is already imprisoning Christianity in his own "views and 
tradition, likes and dislikes."

Despite its setbacks, this book is an important and timely resource for 
further reflection on such a complex and multifaceted issue as the 
significance of Christianity in today's culture and its role in history.

The value of the present volume lies not in solving enigmas, but in 
pointing to questions and problems that must be answered through further 
research.


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      <td width="80%"><font size="+2"><b>Hugh McLeod and Werner Ustorf,
eds.</b> <i>The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750-2000</i></font><i>.
      </i><font size="+1">New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2003. ix + 234 pp.
Tables, notes bibliography, index.
$60.00 (cloth), ISBN 0-521-81493-6. </font>
      <p><font size="+1">Reviewed by <b>Araceli Duque</b>, Department
of European Studies, University Institute Ortega y Gasset, Madrid.<br>
Published by <a href="http://www.h-net.msu.edu/%7Ecatholic">
H-Catholic</a> (May, 2004) </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"><br>
      </font></p>
      <center><font size="+1"><b>Current Approaches to the Study of the
Role of Religion in Western Europe</b></font></center>
      <p> <font size="+1">"We are still dealing with Christendom: with
Christendom in ruins, but with Christendom." Hilaire Belloc's words in
the early 1930s would seem inapplicable today, yet the contributors to
this collection of essays would not entirely disagree. While Werner
Ustorf or Thomas Kselman assume the dissolution of Christendom, Martin
Greschat or Peter van Rooden point to its pervasiveness in the later
part of the twentieth century--the former through a detailed
examination of the debates between German Protestants after World War
II, the latter arguing for the existence of "various kinds of
Christendom" which have succeeded each other in the case of the
Netherlands (p. 113). The answer is not an easy one. This collection of
essays represents a significant input to this far-reaching and still
somewhat obscure process. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"> The
contribution of this volume must be placed within the context of the
promising new historiographical direction that has opened up in modern
European history, first in the 1950s-1970s with the "new cultural
history," and continued in the present time by historians, theologians,
and sociologists who point to the continuous importance of religion in
the lives of Western European peoples. These show concern, not so much
with the expressions of social or economic structures or established
churches, but with alternative ways in which religion may express
itself. The key is believed to be in the study of popular religious
behavior and, one may add, not with the essence of Christianity itself,
but with the way it is experienced. Thus, the central focus is the
religion of the people, rather than that of political and religious
elites. This volume examines the much-neglected change from
Christendom, where Christianity had a prominent role, towards a society
in which the main churches have had to adapt to a situation where they
no longer hold a privileged role. Progression or regression? Rather
than dismissing the replacement of Christendom for Christianity as a
negative or positive turn in Western European history, the authors of
these essays, with chapters on most European countries, point out the
complexities and vicissitudes that should be taken into account before
making such a judgment of value, thereby contributing to the wealth of
new perspectives on the complexity and striking tenacity of religious
belief and practice. It seeks to examine this process of increasing
pluralism, which has accelerated dramatically since the 1960s, and its
implication for the future. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"> There are
thirteen chapters, most focusing on a particular European country,
thereby emphasizing the unitary element of the experience of decline.
Divided into four sections, it seeks to examine the situation of
Western Europe at the end of the twentieth century, the reasons why and
how Christendom has declined through an emphasis on narrative, and the
situation of religion through key themes such as technology, death, and
language. The final part of the book looks at the future and asks how
Christianity should respond to the end of Christendom. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1">With few exceptions, every country of Western
Europe experienced
changes of the same kind and around the same time: the 1960s. But most
importantly, no linear path toward dechristianization and
secularization can be traced from the French Revolution into the
twentieth century, for nineteenth- and twentieth-century Europe has
experienced unpredictable religious revivals that scholars are still
trying to explain. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"> If there is a common
view among the authors, it is that the "master narrative" of
secularization is inadequate. Callum Brown and Jeffrey Cox note that
concepts such as "secularization" and "decline" are problematic,
because they fail to take account of alternative ways in which
religiosity is expressed. The problem is that "the secularization story
is too complex and many-sided to be 'verified' or 'falsified'; it can
only be compared in its persuasiveness to another story, or other
stories. As long as secularization is presented as the only story, one
cannot say it is the best story" (p. 209). </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1">One recurrent theme, as the fine introduction
by Hugh McLeod points
out, is that what marks the radical break with the past, especially in
the period after 1960, is not so much "that the precepts of Christian
morality were being ignored in practice, but that alternative
principles were being openly advocated" (p. 13). Thus, Eva H. Hamberg
explores the situation of Sweden to argue that what causes religious
indifference is not a pluralistic society, but a monopoly on religion.
As she states, "what appears to be a low level of demand for religion
may be a low level of demand for the available forms of religion" (pp.
58-59). In other words, the important factor is quantity rather than
quality. Moreover, the case of Sweden, she argues, shows that the rise
of material welfare does not necessarily involve decline of religion. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1">Yves Lambert, providing one of the best essays
in this collection,
argues that secularization is only one among several aspects of the
contemporary situation. Rather than dismissing the process as wholly
"secular," he maintains that Christianity has adapted well to
modernity, yet at a high price: "the abandonment of what rendered
religion absolutely indispensable: the reaching of eternal salvation"
(p. 77). Can we still speak of Christianity in Western Europe when the
basic element ceases to be important? He does not answer the question,
but contends that, in order to understand the present situation, we
need to take account of the main features of modernity and the
transformation that those changes have brought about. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1">The complexity is also explored by Lucian
Holscher through a study of
the semantic structures of religious change in Germany, to emphasize
another recurring theme in these essays, namely, there is no one way to
view religious change. Furthermore, the study of those changes helps us
understand historical change. David Hempton analyzes the complex
relationship between established churches and evangelical dissenters in
England since 1700. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"> Thomas Kselman uses
his study of death in modern France to argue that one must be cautious
in making judgments about the process of dechristianization and must
have, in turn, "a generous standard when establishing Christian
identity." Thus, in the case of France, he argues, we must "consider
the possibility that the continued insistence on Catholic identity and
Christian symbols represents an authentic form of Christianity,"
something which merits further reflection (p. 158). Sheridan Gilley
studies the way in which religion contributed to the formation of
cultural identities in the case of Ireland, an important theme that
merits further reflection in the new Europe. Moreover, the relationship
between modernity and religion is examined by Michel Lagree through the
impact of technology on Catholicism, concluding that "technology is not
inevitably the main agent of the world's disenchantment" (p. 179). </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1">If one is interested in knowing the current
approaches to the study of
the decline of Christendom, this book is a must. If one, however, is
looking for actual reasons for its decline, he will be disappointed,
for he will not find them here. Instead, the complexity and the
diversity of the process of religious decline are offered, while
recognizing that many of the conditions discussed are specific only to
Western Europe. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"> Further lines of
inquiry would do well to integrate themes that are absent in the
present volume, and address questionable assumptions that are present
here as well. Two absent themes, for instance, are intellectual history
and that of gender. As to questionable assumptions, further research
would be enriched by questioning the main definition of Christendom as
a society in which Christianity was "the dominant religion and this
dominance has been backed up by social or legal compulsions" (p. 218).
Thus, the argument goes, the most important difference between religion
under Christendom and under modern secular societies is that in the
former, it was imposed from above or adhered to because of
peer-pressure, dominated by coercion, control, and domination, whereas
in modern societies religion is free and voluntary. If the main
definition of Christendom is a civilization that was imposed from
above, how can one explain its endurance and pervasiveness in history?
This question is left unanswered. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"> The
present volume attempts to examine the transformation of religion in
modern European history without, as Werner Ustorf notes, "imprisoning
it in one's views and tradition, likes and dislikes" (p. 220). This
indeed is a laudable enterprise, yet it is still doubtful how or
whether it can be achieved. The tendency of many of the contributors of
these essays is to lower the standards of Christianity so that it can
be accepted by all. Werner Ustorf's solution is for Christianity to
free itself from its cultural, institutional or doctrinal restraints.
With this statement, he is already imprisoning Christianity in his own
"views and tradition, likes and dislikes." </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1">Despite its setbacks, this book is an
important and timely resource for
further reflection on such a complex and multifaceted issue as the
significance of Christianity in today's culture and its role in
history. </font></p>
      <p><font size="+1"> The value of the present
volume lies not in solving enigmas, but in pointing to questions and
problems that must be answered through further research. </font></p>
      </td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
</body>
</html>

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