[Discussion] Koprulu/Veles Ottoman....

[Paksoy, Hb]

http://www.turkishnews.com/itumuk/info/petek/frame/subject6/article4.htm=
l=20



K=F6pr=FCl=FC/Veles (Yugoslavia) Ottoman Garrison's Response=20
to the 1909 Recidivist Uprising in =CDstanbul=20
H. B. Paksoy=20

Introduction=20
=D6mer Seyfettin (1884-1920) recorded his observations=20
during April 1909 when the news of =CDrtica (recidivist)=20
uprising in =CDstanbul reached the town of=20
Koprulu--situated along the Vardar river. At the time,=20
Seyfettin was serving there in the Ottoman garrison as=20
an Army Officer.=20

Students of the medrese (theological-scholastic=20
school) and their supporters in =CDstanbul staged what=20
has been termed =CDrtica, a religious "movement"=20
opposing the Ottoman Constitutionalism.[1] The=20
Constitution was initially enacted after the Tanzimat=20
("reordering" 1839-1876).[2] The scholasticists first=20
demanded the abolition of everything "not in=20
conformity with Shari'a" (canonical law); Later,=20
massacred a portion of Ottoman troops loyal to their=20
officers who, in turn, were in favor of=20
Constitutionalism.=20

The "Action Army" [Hareket Ordusu], an armed force=20
virtually self-organized by the army officers serving=20
in the western garrisons of the Ottoman empire (in a=20
manner, foreshadowing the 1918 German Freicorps?),=20
decisively suppressed the Irtica of 1909. Among the=20
officers of this force were graduates of the Ottoman=20
Military Academy such as =D6mer Seyfettin, Mustafa Kemal=20
[Atat=FCrk] (1881-1938), KazIm Karabekir (1882-1948) and=20
Enver Bey (1881-1922). [3] Enver rose through the=20
Ottoman ranks rather rapidly. Following the deposition=20
of Sultan Abd=FClhamid II (r. 1876-1909) and suppression=20
of the Irtica, Enver served in Germany as military=20
attache (1909-1911). He later married into the Ottoman=20
ruling family and became a "Son-in-law" (damat, a=20
highly sought after "relationship" by some officers)=20
to the Ottoman Court. Those combined experiences and=20
positions allowed Enver, along with Jemal and Talat of=20
the Union and Progress Party, to form the ruling (and,=20
ultimately losing) triumvirate in the Ottoman=20
Empire.[4] Enver later attempted to lead another=20
movement and died in what is today Tajikistan.[5]=20

Enver was operating in Central Asia, entirely contrary=20
to his past record, under religious titles=20
("son-in-law to the Caliph," etc). Meanwhile, his=20
cohorts, such as Mustafa Kemal, =CDsmet =CDn=F6n=FC=20
(1884-1973) and KazIm Karabekir, conducted the Turkish=20
War of Liberation 1919-1924, culminating in the=20
establishment of the secular Turkish Republic in Asia=20
Minor.[6] Seyfettin resigned his army commission=20
shortly after his service in the Hareket Ordusu to=20
devote his time to writing, but was mobilized during=20
the 1911 Balkan war. After spending a year as a=20
prisoner of war in Greece, he was exchanged, and=20
discharged from the army. As a civilian and a=20
celebrated author by the beginning of the First World=20
War, Seyfettin died of diabetes at the age of 36 in=20
1920 before observing the establishment of the TBMM=20
(Turkish Grand National Assembly) and the Turkish=20
Republic. His writings certainly contributed to and=20
influenced the outcome.[7]=20



Ottoman "Reordering" (1839) and the Soviet=20
"Perestroika" (1980s)=20
It could be observed that there are remarkable=20
similarities between the Tanzimat, "reordering" period=20
of the Mahmut II (r. 1808-1839) of the Ottoman empire=20
and that of the Soviet Perestroika "restructuring"=20
attempts of Gorbachev and company. The similitude goes=20
far beyond the labels. Both occurrences were the=20
culmination of efforts to save those empires from=20
imminent collapse. In either case, the primary impetus=20
was supplied from the outside of both states, in=20
collaboration of the "minorities" living within the=20
borders of these empires. On the surface, the reasons=20
were the "integrity" and salvation of both empires,=20
the Ottoman, and the reincarnated Russian under the=20
"soviet" rubric. Underneath, a series of economic,=20
cultural, social and political issues prevailed.=20

The Ottoman empire constituted the centerpiece of the=20
Eastern Question, which itself was a part of the Great=20
Game in Asia.[8] But the resemblances cannot be=20
pressed too far. As far as the "Eastern Question" was=20
concerned, the tsarist Russian empire expected to be a=20
beneficiary, even instigator, of the proposed=20
dissolution of the Ottoman empire. Tsar Nicholas I (r.=20
1825-1855) used the term "sick man of Europe" while=20
referring to the Ottoman empire, and was seeking to=20
secure territorial gains in the Middle East at the=20
expense of the Ottomans. The ostensible Russian reason=20
was to "protect" the Holy Land. Simultaneously, the=20
French and British were already on the ground, in the=20
same territories coveted by the tsarist policy makers.=20
The Ottoman defensive preparations to resist the=20
continuing tsarist incursions and invasions, which=20
systematically absorbed Ottoman lands in favor of=20
Russia since Catherine II (r. 1762-1796), was a=20
primary drain on the Ottoman state finances. Similar=20
drains on Soviet/Russian finances as a result of the=20
Cold War could construe yet another parallel.=20

The tsarists (as their Soviets successors) expected to=20
profit from the control the Straits, Bosphorus and the=20
Dardanelles, connecting the Black Sea and=20
Mediterranean via the Sea of Marmara, as well as the=20
territories in the Caucasus and further south. One of=20
the Russian objectives was to gain access to the=20
Mediterranean, to join --or spoil-- the British and=20
French activities. Aware of the tsarist aims, and=20
under pressure from the western European states, the=20
Ottoman ruler Mahmut II (r. 1808-1839) and a new=20
generation of his administrators, set about=20
"revitalizing" the Ottoman empire through Tanzimat.[9]=20

As Mahmut II, his immediate successors and the new=20
Ottoman bureaucracy began to effect their=20
"reorderings," the minorities of the empire gained=20
privileges such as special courts, protection and=20
exemptions; all beyond the reach of the Ottoman=20
sovereignty. The net result was effective=20
discrimination against the Turkish population in favor=20
of the non-Turks in the empire. The minorities of the=20
Ottoman empire, receiving generous political,=20
educational, monetary and spiritual aid from various=20
outside entities, including the Russians, began to=20
seek political and economic autonomy or outright=20
independence.=20

Both the Ottoman and the Tsarist Russian empires were=20
multi- ethnic states. In the Ottoman empire, various=20
ethnic groups, each officially designated millet=20
(nation), lived side-by-side with each other; often in=20
the same villages. By the 19th century all ethnic=20
groups were organized according to their religion,=20
with every millet having an independent internal=20
administrative hierarchy, primarily composed of the=20
clerics of each. For example, there were Catholic=20
millet (nation), members of which exclusively belonged=20
to that church. On the other hand, the Catholic French=20
millet, for example, was separate from the Catholic=20
Russian millet. For that matter, any ethnicity could=20
have more than one millet, so long as they adhered to=20
different religions or sects.=20

Thus, the "Narod" subdivisions of the Soviet Union by=20
Lenin and Stalin periods seemes to have been copied=20
from the Ottoman practice.[10] While the Ottomans=20
created the millet system in response to the external=20
pressures, to grant minorities extraordinary=20
privileges, the "national in form but socialist in=20
content" nationalities policy of the Soviets was=20
undertaken for preemptive purposes, to thwart just=20
such western pressures. In most cases, the Soviet=20
"narod" system was used within the USSR in reverse of=20
the Ottoman empire model; in the Soviet case, to=20
suppress the non-Russians educationally, culturally=20
and economically. Moreover, the Soviet leadership=20
intended to use the "narod" mechanism and groupings=20
for "export," of the "socialist revolution."[11]=20

Towards the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman=20
Tanzimat reformers also subscribed to the "Ottoman=20
Citizen" idea, perhaps influenced by the ideas of the=20
1789 French evolution, and began propagating it=20
widely. Accordingly, every person resident of the=20
Ottoman empire, regardless of birth, national origin,=20
religion, or any other unique attributes, was a=20
citizen of the Ottoman empire and enjoyed equal rights=20
under the law.[12] This was a bureaucratic attempt to=20
create a unity within the Ottoman empire, to mollify=20
the pressure received from outside powers, and to=20
prevent a dissolution. The post 1917 "Soviet man"=20
doctrine seems to be a duplication of the "Ottoman=20
citizen" idea. Thereby, every citizen of the USSR=20
regardless of national origin, ethnicity or any other=20
attributes, and often against the interests of all,=20
was to serve the Communist Party of the USSR=20
regardless of individual personal cost.[13]=20



Seyfettin's Contribution=20
The Irtica incident of 1909 took place towards the end=20
of Ottoman "reordering" period, as a reaction against=20
it. Even here one may view the 1991 coup attempt in=20
Moscow in the shadow of Ottoman "reordering," Soviet=20
"perestroika" and the 1909 dogmatic Irtica=20
reaction.[14] Whilst the 1991 Coup Attempt in Moscow=20
unravelled before the full force of international=20
media, with active TV cameras and satellite links, the=20
1909 Irtica had no such coverage. Hence the=20
contribution by Seyfettin to our understanding of=20
broader issues.=20

Seyfettin kept a diary during his active service in=20
the army. Later he drew upon that collection to write=20
various short stories for publication.[15] However,=20
the primary merit of this piece is not literary but=20
historical. It is a non-fictional, first hand account=20
of an educated observer and participant. Shortly after=20
the action of the narrative, Seyfettin's military unit=20
was incorporated into the Action Army and marched on=20
to Istanbul, to suppress the Irtica.=20

Immediately after the arrival and initial circulation=20
in K=F6pr=FCl=FC of the news of =CDrtica uprising, Seyfettin=20
begins collecting his own thoughts, concerning the=20
instigators and participants of the =CDrtica. He leaves=20
the restaurant where he dined and first heard of the=20
developments. The date is 1 April 1325/1909.[16] His=20
punctuation and sentence structure is maintained=20
throughout.=20

=CDrtica Haberi (News of the Recidivist Uprising)=20

Alone, I began walking through the deserted streets.=20
The public clock chimed. I passed the fountain. At the=20
Grand Poplar Square, as usual, the dogs began barking.=20
The night watchman was sitting at the opposite corner,=20
in front of a shop- bench, presenting a mass of=20
shifting shadows under the dark, star-lit sky; his=20
cigarette occasionally glowing brighter, like an=20
orphaned fire-fly in his last throes, as he puffed on=20
it. I was passing the cemetery. I recalled how, with=20
due ceremony, we had buried those killed five months=20
ago by the adherents of Irtica and the religious=20
bigotry. Still the murderers and instigators have not=20
been punished. They may even be pardoned altogether.=20

Was this the land of justice, which did not touch Kor=20
Ali, but instead patted him on the back? Those who had=20
turned the capital city (Istanbul) upside down, and=20
directly, deliberately and clearly attacked the=20
Constitutional Order would come to no harm. Alas!!..=20
Poor Remzi. I wonder if your soul, extinguished by=20
that agitation, at the height of your youth and hope,=20
sees the principal elements of that disgusting crowd=20
now spilling blood in Istanbul? Or... I walked slowly.=20
The lantern across the entrance-way to the cemetery=20
was unlit. Mute headstones stood in gloomy silence as=20
if they were thoughtfully preoccupied with the=20
vagaries of life. I kept walking slowly.=20

The Vardar was flowing below, as it has done since the=20
days of the unknown centuries past, with historical=20
sanctity that could not be created anew or perverted.=20
It was crying on the water-mill walls, its splashing=20
sounds sending shivers into this mournful night.=20

I was approaching the barracks. Deserted iron-smith=20
shops of the gypsies displayed a strange life. Frail=20
lights were radiating through the cracks of their=20
shutters. Tomorrow is Friday... Each one of these=20
shop-owners had placed a lit candle on their anvils,=20
honoring the souls of their ancestors!....=20

I reached the sleeping quarters. The lamp on the table=20
was turned down, the (Company Commander) Captain was=20
under his red quilt, Sisman Galip in his corner bed;=20
the Officer of the Day, in his appointed bed. All=20
asleep. I awakened them and gave them the news. With=20
the induced excitement, I even slightly exaggerated.=20
Even then, they did not think it important. It has not=20
been an hour. As I write this, they are sleeping=20
peacefully. However, I.... My nerves are so taut, I do=20
not think I can fall asleep tonight. Only the Captain,=20
who has been in favor of writing Albanian in the Latin=20
script, said carelessly:=20

-- "Damn these hojas.[17] Are not they the ones who=20
thwarted our alphabet, too?"=20

Officer of the Day, H=FCsn=FC, remained silent.=20

Sisman Galip, after foully cursing:=20

-- "Those bigots.... All of them ought to be cut to=20
pieces."=20

He closed his eyes. He now sleeps.=20

However, my poor notebook, I found and dragged you=20
from under my books. You were idle for the past six=20
months. Possibly, more important events will occur=20
that I will commit to you. I entrust to your neutral=20
white pages those thoughts of mine which I cannot=20
confide to even the youngest and most progressive=20
friends for fear of being "misunderstood." Hundreds of=20
your pages are filled. I read you in order to prompt=20
myself into action. As long as I live, you are going=20
to be my companion. If, after I die, you fall into the=20
hands of a bigot, not finding me to insult or accuse=20
me of blasphemy, perhaps he will tear you to shreds=20
instead!... It is past midnight. I am going to bed. We=20
shall see what the morning will bring.=20

2 April=20

I had just gone to bed and had not yet fallen asleep.=20
The door opened. Cavalry Captain Arif Bey entered. He=20
is a plump, always cheerful, joking friend. He=20
addresses everyone with "Hayatim" [My Life, darling].=20
Thus he acquired the nickname "Hayatim." He walked=20
toward my bed, and with an excited voice:=20

-- "Rise, HayatIm, quickly" he said. "Officers are=20
convening at the club. There will be discussion; get=20
dressed. Awaken the others. I am on my way to wake the=20
Cavalry."=20

I got up immediately, and awakened the others. Galip=20
could not get up. Together with the Officer of the=20
Day, we went to the Headquarters of the Fifth Cavalry=20
Company. Along with all other present officers, we=20
then went down to the club. The club is closed in the=20
evenings, but now its elegant and distinguished main=20
room was brightly illuminated. In the game room, past=20
the entrance on the left, the Commanding General was=20
standing, and his Chief of Staff was decoding a=20
cypher. There were twenty officers present in the=20
room. They were talking to each other, and Sultan=20
Abd=FClhamid's name was being frequently mentioned=20
through clenched teeth. I understood that in the=20
morning there will be a public meeting, protests will=20
be issued, the Reserve Battalion mobilized, volunteers=20
from among the local Christian population will be=20
accepted.=20

We conferred... Hours passed. We were waiting for the=20
dawn. Nobody thought of sleeping. The door opened.=20
Akil and the municipal doctor arrived. They drank tea.=20
Akil had not slept either, and wrote a speech at the=20
post office for the Postmaster to read at the public=20
meeting. Slowly, the officers began to arrive. The=20
Commanding General went upstairs. Along with the=20
Cavalry Regiment commander, the commander of our=20
battalion, Staff Officer Mufit Bey arrived. Mufit Bey=20
started the discussion. He is high strung, but an=20
unhesitating and a man of initiative. He directly=20
accused Sultan:=20

-- "Friends!" he began. "You may rest assured that=20
this unbearable attack on Constitutionalism and the=20
hopes of the people is emanating from Sultan=20
Abulhamid! Do not seek another criminal, another=20
murderer! Constitutionalism is his death, he cannot=20
live without causing cruelty, death, or spilling of=20
blood and tears. He will wither away."=20

He continued vehemently. The Commanding General, who=20
had not ventured outside Istanbul until he reached the=20
rank of Colonel, was undoubtedly reminiscing his past=20
days of calm and obedience at the Capital. M=FCfit Bey=20
provoked the young officers, who lost their powers of=20
judgement in their grief and anger: "Let us demand=20
dethronement. This time our action should be final and=20
decisive!" Meanwhile the General was becoming annoyed=20
and thinking of ways to calm down the stirrings with=20
some miraculous intervention to restore the usual=20
decorum.=20

After M=FCfit Bey completed his oration, Akil and the=20
doctor --because they were civilians-- got up and=20
left. Short but vehement arguments were heard. The=20
General was advocating calm and quiet, stating "the=20
devil intervenes in hasty business."[18] It was=20
decided that the Cavalry Regiment Commander Hasan Bey,=20
who had played an important role during the July=20
Revolution, would give an address on behalf of the=20
soldiers. Everyone dispersed. Perhaps many went to=20
play cards. I came to the garden of the Yeni Hotel.=20
There I found Akil. Together we went to the telegraph=20
office. The Postmaster was reviewing his speech, in=20
order to deliver it well, and asked for clarifications=20
from Akil of portions he could not read. The clerks=20
were busily working at the telegraph room. I was=20
sitting by the window. The girls of the house across=20
the way were talking to each other under the rising=20
sun and the pleasantly cool air; they were also=20
stopping other girls who were passing by. Undoubtedly,=20
they could not understand the cause of the excitement=20
in progress since last night. However, from their=20
appearance, it was clear that they could sense that=20
something was unusual.=20

Two of them had tied to their hair those white and red=20
things which we called "freedom ribbon." They were=20
talking, even giggling and looking at me with=20
provocative glances as if to say "We wonder what=20
happened." A telegrapher entered the room. He said:=20

-- "The meeting has begun."=20

The Postmaster worried that we were late. Rising=20
quickly we descended the steep hill with a some=20
intensity. In front of the Serbian school, the=20
Postmaster said:=20

-- "I must down two cognacs in order to read it well!"=20

He left us, turning the corner of the Merkez Hotel. We=20
proceeded slowly towards the Government Square.=20

The small and untidy square was completely full. We=20
crossed the bridge with difficulty, stopping at the=20
very back of the crowd. The Prefecture Clerk, a young=20
man, had mounted a chair by the column near the=20
entrance of the government building. He was reading a=20
paper which he held in his hand, shouting at the top=20
of his lungs, damning despotism. After him, a young=20
and affable lawyer took over the podium. He spoke a=20
rather long time. Occasionally he consulted a paper=20
which he took out of his pocket. At inappropriate=20
times, as when the word "despotism" mentioned, he was=20
met by applause.=20

Some of the people were clapping their hands to insult=20
and malign. Speakers followed one another. A Bulgarian=20
with dark glasses took his turn. Next was a teacher=20
wearing a hat... They spoke long and exaggeratedly. I=20
could only understand the word "Carigrat" in their=20
speeches, which means Istanbul. Later, the Prefect=20
[Kaymakam] went on. He began to speak=20
extemporaneously. With the provincial Rumeli[19]=20
accent, screaming rather preciously, to the effect=20
that religion, sects, gender had no relation to=20
government. "Governments are not constituted for=20
religion, sects, gender, but on the basis of=20
interest," he repeated without hesitation that=20
"governments exist on interest rather than on religion=20
or tribe." He was applauded justly. Aged (Ottoman)=20
gendarme troopers were observing this eloquence of=20
their Prefect with a chuckle from the windows of their=20
station house.=20

The windows of the Society of Union and Progress[20]=20
District Central Bureau were closed. From the medrese=20
rooms next door, old and young hojas, men with=20
turbans, were observing this crowd with distraught=20
faces and conspicuously not joining in the applause.=20
The sun grew hotter. From the rear, a boy selling=20
gazoz[21] was attempting to push his cart into the=20
middle of the crowd. A buggy driver, to hear the=20
speeches better, was trying to drive his horses=20
further on. The humorlessness of those turbaned heads=20
looking from the medrese windows reminded me of a=20
literary memory. Ten years ago, when I was intending=20
to explore Pierre Loti, I had read Ayzade. In it,=20
there are a few pages devoted to the first=20
Constitutionalism of the Ottomans. A rainy day is=20
depicted. Reportedly, guns were fired in salute at=20
BeyazIt Square[22] in =CDstanbul. Loti had entered an=20
old Turkish coffee house. The turban wearing old men=20
sitting inside made fun of Mithat Pasha's Kanuni Esasi=20
[1876 Constitution],[23] laughed at the gun salute and=20
calmly puffed on their =E7ubuks [clay pipes]....[24]=20
Perhaps it is an illusory effect.... However, I saw in=20
those turbaned men, looking on from the medrese room,=20
the same contempt and animosity toward=20
Constitutionalism. Does not history show us that it=20
was the clerics[25] who opposed all forms of freedom,=20
and in the end were defeated?=20

After the Prefect, the Cavalry Regiment Commander=20
Hasan Bey rose. He was a little halting and formal,=20
wearing white gloves. He rested on his sword and every=20
now and then repeating, in his address, "gentlemen."=20
He spoke more freely than the Prefect: "Although this=20
government is composed of Turks, all peoples of this=20
country, like Albanians, Arabs, Bulgars, Greeks, in=20
short, all elements are working together to extend and=20
advance the base on which it rests... The country=20
belongs to all elements." He even said "Our homeland,=20
gentlemen, occupies a place that extends from Bagdad=20
to Vienna[26]. In those places, lay the bones of our=20
ancestors. We need endeavor gradually to return to=20
these locales. To accomplish that, we must have=20
Constitutionalism and equality...."=20

A few others rose. The sun's heat began to burn. I=20
said to Arif: "Let us go." We left, made our way=20
through the crowd. The K=FC=E7=FCk Bridge was relatively=20
deserted. We crossed. I left him to return to the=20
barracks alone. Because the guard stations along the=20
railroad are going to be pulled back, possibly our=20
battalion will be ordered into action. I arrived at=20
the barracks. No one was in the room. All were sitting=20
outside. A special train is said to be arriving from=20
Skopje. There is a monastery here [in Koprulu]. This=20
was their at-home day... I wrote the observations of=20
the day indoors. I will now join the others outside=20
and watch the parade of the pilgrims (visiting the=20
monastery?). The weather is so hot, so hot that I=20
cannot sit with my tunic on.=20

3 April=20

Today is Friday... Volunteers are arriving. The=20
Reserve Battalion is mobilizing. There is=20
unprecedented activity. All of my companions in the=20
battalion anticipate our deployment. All of our troops=20
wore white k=FClah [cap].[27] We distributed white=20
puttees from the depo. The officers will also wear the=20
white k=FClah. Our cariks [footwear][28] have been=20
oiled. I collected my books and papers and placed them=20
in the big strongbox. I kept out a change of underwear=20
and clothes for the suitcase. I will leave my dear dog=20
Koton who had not left my side for the past five=20
years, to the veterinarian Mazlum Bey. I am completely=20
ready. The battalion imam [prayer leader], returning=20
from the Friday prayers, gave an important piece of=20
news. At the mosque, during the recitation of the=20
hutbe [prayer] Sultan Hamid's name was not mentioned.=20
This was according to the m=FCft=FC's order. From now on,=20
Abd=FClhamid's name is not to be mentioned in the=20
hutbes... [29] This peculiar order led me to think. I=20
thought that, at this moment, in =CDstanbul, all of the=20
viziers, field marshals, divisional generals,=20
generals[30], aides, soldiers are performing the=20
selamlik[31] duty to him [Abd=FClhamid II], to this=20
sinister and obdurate power over our homeland for=20
thirty-two years; yet they obsequiously worship him,=20
the abominable scarlet[32] and inextinguishable shadow=20
of God....=20

AFTERWORD=20

The ensuing events were gradually detailed in print.=20
One of the best sources is S. S. Aydemir, who in his=20
Tek Adam [Mustafa Kemal]; Ikinci Adam [Ismet Inonu]=20
and Makedonya'dan Orta Asya'ya Enver Pasa provides the=20
details of what happened next.[33]=20



NOTES:=20
1. See Sina Aksin, 31 Mart OlayI (Ankara, 1970);=20
Ernest E. Ramsaur, The Young Turks: Prelude to=20
Revolution of 1908 (Beirut, 1965).=20

2. Perhaps can be extended to the early 20th century,=20
encompassing the period under consideration. Stanford=20
J. Shaw & Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman=20
Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University Press,=20
1977). Volume II.=20

3. H. B. Paksoy, "US and Bolshevik Relations with the=20
TBMM Government: The First Contacts, 1919-1921." The=20
Journal of Sophia Asian Studies No. 12 (1994). Pp.=20
211-251.=20

4. Erik Jan Zurcher, The Unionist Factor: The Role of=20
the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish=20
National Movement, 1905-1926 (Leiden: E. J. Brill,=20
1984).=20

5. H. B. Paksoy, "The 'Basmachi'" (Turkistan National=20
Liberation Movement 1916-1930s) Modern Encyclopedia of=20
Religions in Russia and Soviet Union [MERRSU]=20
(Florida: Academic International Press, 1991) Vol. IV.=20
Pp. 5-20; Feridun Kandemir, Enver Pasa'nIn Son Gunleri=20
(Istanbul, 1943).=20

6. G. L. Lewis, Turkey (London, 1965); B. Lewis,=20
Emergence of Modern Turkey ((Oxford, 1976).=20

7. H. B. Paksoy, "Nationality and Religion: Three=20
Observations from Omer Seyfettin." Central Asian=20
Survey (Oxford) Vol. 3, N. 3, 1985.=20

8. H. B. Paksoy, "Nationality or Religion? Views of=20
Central Asian Islam" AACAR Bulletin (of the=20
Association for the Advancement of Central Asian=20
Research) Vol. VIII, No. 2; Fall 1995. Translation in=20
Central Asia and the Gulf. Masayuki Yamauchi, Ed.=20
(Tokyo: Asahi Selected Series, 1995). Pp. 17-67 +=20
Notes: 1-15.=20

9. This was not the first Ottoman attempt. Earlier,=20
Selim III (r. 1789-1807) sought to effect a=20
revitalization plan, but was thwarted and later=20
deposed by the reactionary elements --similar to those=20
of the Irtica of 1909-- in the Ottoman empire. The=20
entrenched vested interests resisted the loss of their=20
privileges. See Shaw & Shaw.=20

10. Apart from the Religious Boards, originally=20
established under Catherine II, again for "control"=20
purposes. See H. B. Paksoy, "Kirim Tatarlari"=20
Belgelerle Turk Tarihi Dergisi Sayi 72, Subat 1991.=20

11. Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union=20
(Harvard, 1970). Second Printing; R. W. Seton-Watson,=20
Disraeli, Gladstone & the Eastern Question. A Study in=20
diplomacy & party politics. (London, 1935); H.=20
Seton-Watson, From Lenin to Malenkov. (New York,=20
1954); idem, The Russian Empire, 1801-1917 (Oxford,=20
1967).=20

12. This standard "Ottomanist" argument was repeated=20
by many Ottoman authors, and explained by Seyfettin in=20
his published works; although he was unmercifully=20
critical. That formulation of "citizenship" was later=20
adopted by the Bolsheviks and the Communist Party of=20
the Soviet Union. See H. B. Paksoy, "Turk Tarihi,=20
Toplumlarin Mayasi, Uygarlik" Annals of Japan=20
Association for Middle East Studies (Tokyo) No. 7,=20
1992. Pp. 173- 220. [Reprinted in Yeni Forum (Ankara),=20
Vol. 13, No. 277, Haziran 1992. Pp. 54-65]; Davis S.=20
Thomas "Yusuf Akcura's Uc Tarz-i Siyaset" CENTRAL=20
ASIAN MONUMENTS, H. B. Paksoy, Editor (Istanbul: Isis=20
Press, 1992); reprinted in CENTRAL ASIA READER: The=20
Rediscovery of History H. B. Paksoy, Editor, (New=20
York: M. E. Sharpe, 1994).=20

13. One may also include the umma (community of=20
believers) created by the prophet Muhammad in this=20
category.=20

14. At this point, the dissimilarities become apparent=20
once again: The Coup attempt of 1991 was plotted by=20
Russian military and security men, and had to be put=20
down by other military units loyal to Mr. Yeltsin. The=20
estimated cost of suppressing the coup somehow=20
equalled the US aid (said to be $1.5 billion) Mr.=20
Yeltsin received from Mr. Clinton at the Vancouver=20
summit shortly before the Tula division surrounded the=20
Russian White House in Moscow. Therefore, perhaps the=20
US taxpayers even subsidized the suppression and the=20
Russian "transition to democracy."=20

15. If rediscovered, these notebooks would undoubtedly=20
constitute a valuable historical source. An annotated=20
list is in Tahir Alangu Omer Seyfettin (Istanbul,=20
1968) Pp. 130-140, including the piece translated=20
below.=20

16. During this period, the calendar in use within the=20
Ottoman empire was "Mali," the "day of year" portion=20
of which had been officially adjusted on 1 March 1917=20
to coincide with the Gregorian style by the Istanbul=20
Government. The TBMM Government completed the=20
transition by additional measures in 1925 and 1935.=20

Most sources dating from the period under discussion=20
generally do not mention the basic form (Mali or=20
Gregorian) of their chronology, and on occasion=20
provide an "hybrid" form of "dating" (which may have=20
been instituted by later date publishers). For the=20
desired degree of conversion precision, concerning=20
specific dates, one may consult F. R. Unat, Hicri=20
Tarihleri Miladi Tarihe Cevirme Kilavuzu (Ankara,=20
1974).=20

17. In this context, a sweeping statement that=20
includes the medrese students as well as all other=20
moslem clerics.=20

18. Proverb: "Acele ise seytan karisir."=20

19. Rumeli refers to the European portion of the=20
Ottoman Empire. However, to the Central Asians,=20
anything west of the Caspian sea was "rumi." See=20
Kashgarli Mahmud, Divan Lugat it-Turk (DLT), completed=20
during 11th c. This unique MSS was discovered during=20
the First World War in Istanbul, and the Editio=20
Princeps was made by Kilisli Rifat (Istanbul,=20
1917-1919). Three Vols. Translated by R. Dankoff with=20
J. Kelly as Compendium of Turkic Dialects (Cambridge,=20
MA., 1982-85). 3 Vols.=20

20. Later to become the Committee of Union and=20
Progress, evolving into the ruling political party.=20
See, among others, M. Sukru Hanioglu, Bir Siyasal=20
Orgut olarak 'Osmanli Ittihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti' ve=20
'Jon Turkluk' 1889-1902 (Vol I) (Istanbul, 1985);=20
Masami Arai, Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Era=20
(Leiden, 1991); T. Z. Tunaya Turkiyede Siyasi=20
Partiler, 1859-1952 (Istanbul, 1952); Serif Mardin,=20
Jon Turklerin Siyasi Fikirleri, 1895-1908 (Ankara,=20
1964); Ramsaur volume cited above; Feroz Ahmad, The=20
Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in=20
Turkish Politics, 1908-1914 (Oxford, 1969); and the=20
Zurcher volume cited above.=20

21. From the French term gazeux; sweetened carbonated=20
water, sold in capped glass bottles. Precursor to=20
present-day colas.=20

22. Where the central administration building of the=20
Istanbul University is now located.=20

23. Ottoman Prime Minister of the time. See Shaw &=20
Shaw.=20

24. Tobacco smoking pipe with a clay bowl and long=20
--3ft. (one meter) plus-- rose-wood shank and bit.=20

25. Seyfettin uses papazlar-priests; indicating he is=20
making a universal reference to unbending religious=20
dogmatism.=20

26. A rather "optimistic" or exaggerated allusion to=20
the extant borders of the Ottoman empire.=20

27. Conical headgear, with some religious connotation,=20
at the time usually worn in preparation for combat.=20

28. One-size-fits-all adjustable sandals, made of=20
Rawhide, usually worn over wool socks.=20

29. It was customary to cite the ruler on the throne,=20
to wish him well, long life, etc. in the weekly hutbe.=20
The fact that the ruler's name is excluded is=20
tantamount to withdrawing public legitimacy of the=20
Sultan, if not outright rebellion against him.=20

30. In the Ottoman empire, there were also "civilian=20
generals," who were primarily high ranking civil=20
servants.=20

31. The public procession of the Ottoman Sultan to a=20
mosque at noon on Fridays.=20

32. Among his subjects, Abdulhamid's nickname was=20
"kizil," referring to the nature and results of his=20
absolute rule.=20

33. S. S. Aydemir, Tek Adam. (Istanbul, 1963-1965). 3=20
Vols; idem, Ikinci Adam [Ismet Inonu] (Istanbul,=20
1966-1969) 3 Vols; idem, Makedonyadan Orta Asyaya=20
Enver Pasa (Istanbul, 1970-1972) 3 Vols. Several=20
printings of each work were made.=20